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Re: www.powerball.net
At 04:07 PM 4/26/97 EST, you wrote:
>Could someone with webb access check out www.powerball.net since we are on the
>hydrogen thread?
>
Randy,
Here is the "Concept Page" from the site. It deals mostly with the
ideas behind and some possible solutions to the Powerball Idea.
Rick Stevens
Powerball Hydrogen Storage Concept
Paper
The Problem: Hydrogen is difficult
to store
Cryogenics
Liquid storage of hydrogen at -435 Fahrenheit is difficult to achieve
and maintain.
Consider that 1 gallon of Liquid Hydrogen weighs .583 lbs and 1 gallon of
gasoline, by comparison, weighs 7.0 lbs. 4 gallons of liquid hydrogen
are needed
to produce the same power as 1 gallon of gasoline! Consider the Space
Shuttle
and its huge tank of liquid hydrogen. A tank of petroleum based fuel
would be
much smaller, yet the critical issue is not volume but mass for NASA.
Hydrogen
stores 3 times the energy of jet fuel by mass. Thus, it is the fuel
of choice for
NASA.
Liquid hydrogen is a good choice for shuttle missions for another
important
reason: The bulk of the Hydrogen can be loaded directly before
take-off and
consumed within a short time. Cryogenic storage works well for space
applications, it is not well suited for civilian applications. The 4
to 1 volume ratio of
liquid hydrogen to gasoline is only part of the problem. The support
equipment to
maintain a tank of hydrogen at nearly absolute zero is very expensive
and requires
an outside energy source, and/or you need to continually allow the
hydrogen to
vent. Even with some of the best cryogenic tanks built it would only
take a few
days before a large percentage of the hydrogen would evaporate. The
hydrogen
venting concerns are also a problem for civilian applications
considering that many
undercover parking areas and garages are nearly air tight, it may be
harder for the
vented hydrogen to escape--leading to a potential explosion.
The proposed liquid hydrogen infrastructure has many problems as
well. Consider
that a standard gasoline station needs only a couple of steel tanks, some
mechanical pumps, credit card readers and they are open for business.
A liquid
hydrogen fueling station, on the other hand, needs expensive and
energy intensive
support equipment to achieve or maintain cryogenic temperatures. The
potential
failure of cryogenic support equipment at a LH2 refueling station
could lead to a
potentially dangerous expansion of gaseous hydrogen.
Compressed Hydrogen Storage
The "State of the Art" hydrogen tanks (composite wound over HDPE) are
compressed to 3000 psi. (See EDO fiber science in Canada) This is 204
times the
atmospheric pressure on earth. Some of the sample cars funded in part
by Xerox
and in use around Los Angeles hold around 8 cubic feet. Ballard
systems plans (or
has installed already) buses in Los Angeles, Quebec, and Chicago. The
compressed tanks on top of the buses hold considerably more hydrogen than
those used for vehicles.
Consider the potential energy involved in even the smaller 8 cubic
foot tanks of
hydrogen for use in vehicles: Roughly 25 million foot-pounds of force
is stored as
potential energy in the gas pressure alone (ignore entirely, for a
moment, the
combustion power of the hydrogen). This force, if somehow directed
entirely at a
1 pound object, could propel the object 25 million feet (or 4734
miles) away from
the earth. It would also be sufficient to toss a 2000 pound car more
than 2 miles
high. Much work is being done to insure that the tanks can never
break, crack,
split, or become punctured. Unfortunately, in the real world,
anything that can go
wrong...will.
Currently, it takes approximately 15 KWH to force 1632 cubic feet of
hydrogen
into an 8 cubic foot tank. This represents 10% of the entire energy
available in the
hydrogen. A high pressure hydrogen refueling infrastructure would consume
hundreds of mega watts of electrical energy if used on a large scale.
Unfortunately,
a bulky 8 cubic foot composite tank (roughly the size of a 100 gallon
gasoline
tank) even at 3000 psi can store a maximum of 8.4 pounds of Hydrogen.
A mere
3.6 gallons of gasoline would store the same power.
Metal Hydride Storage
Many metals and metal alloys are known to absorb hydrogen. The current
promising contenders are TiFe, Mg2Ni and LaNi5 (W.E. Wallace). Consider a
metal hydride storage tank for use in a passenger vehicle (see Maxda,
Ballard,
Siemens, Daimler-Benz, and BMW). Metal hydride storage eliminates the
need
for cryogenics and many metal hydrides store hydrogen at ambient
pressure,
eliminating the dangers of high pressure hydrogen storage. Metal
hydrides,
however, are heavy and expensive...priced out any lanthanum, nickel,
or titanium
lately? In addition, metal hydrides have cyclic effects as the
hydrogen is repeatedly
absorbed into the lattice structure and then urged back out. They
tend to become
brittle and less responsive over time. Refueling a block of Lanthanum
Nickel
hydride is not a quick process that can take place while you grab a
soda and
some potato chips. Many hydrides require hours to fully charge up.
Another fundamental problem exists which is of a thermodynamic
nature: Namely,
all reverse hydriding reactions are endothermic. Unfortunately, this
means that you
always need to pump energy INTO a hydride to get the hydrogen back
out. In
many cases this energy represents a large share of the hydrogen
energy available.
Usually the energy is pumped into the hydride as heat. Once the
hydride is heated
to a particular temperature (which can change depending upon the
number of
cycles it has seen), the hydrogen is released. Some developers have
proposed
using the waste heat from the combustion engine to heat up the block
of hydride to
release hydrogen which appears to be a workable situation. The
problem still
exists however, that upon start up the engine and the hydride are
both cold. This
means that an auxiliary (battery powered?) heater is needed or a
separate gaseous
hydrogen tank has to be added. Although these options are technically
viable, they
add to overall system cost and complexity.
Safety conditions are not only a concern with a hydride storage tank,
but certain
problems may be inevitable. Consider that during a fire, mechanical
failure,
runaway condition, or malfunction of auxiliary heaters, the metal
hydride block is
allowed to heat to the hydrogen release temperature or beyond. Any
number of
conditions would then cause a large majority, if not ALL, of the
stored hydrogen
to be released at once. Consider that an average passenger vehicle
needs to carry
12,240 gallons of H2 at STP for a range of even 200 miles. Consider
that all of
this hydrogen could be released at once from a metal hydride system
during a
runaway condition!
Rare-earth metal hydrides are just that...rare! Lanthanum and other
hydride
materials exists in the earth's crust in the parts per million range.
To produce
hundreds of pounds of the metal for millions of vehicles would
require a mining
effort to rival that of the petroleum industry.
Acceptable hydrogen charge-up times may also be theoretically out of
reach. The
internal lattice structure of a metal requires a set amount of time
to absorb
hydrogen. The density changes along with the magnetic properties,
physical
properties, and internal crystalline structure. There are some things
that even
Scotty from the Star Trek crew just simply cannot change!
The Solution: Powerballs
Powerballs are small solid balls or pellets of sodium hydride that
are coated with a
waterproof plastic coating or skin. Powerballs are stored directly in
water. They
can remain in water for months with little or no change to the
coatings. As soon as
the skin of one Powerball is removed, then the sodium hydride inside
can react
with water to produce hydrogen.
NaH + H2O = NaOH + H2
The sodium hydride/water reaction is very exothermic and fast. A
solid sodium
hydride ball (with a 1 inch diameter) submerged in water will react
to completion
within 10 seconds. Sodium hydride Powerballs react with water to release
hydrogen on demand.
How Much Energy is Stored in a
Powerball?
Consider a sodium hydride Powerball with a 1.2 inch diameter.
Consider the
coating thickness to be .020. Thus, the ball consists of 13.39 cm3 or
18.75 grams
of sodium hydride(NaH). When reacted in the above reaction, 1.56
grams, or
17.5 liters of hydrogen would be produced. Consider that 17.5 liters
of gaseous
hydrogen at STP would have to be compressed to 1307 atmospheres in
order to
achieve the same density as the sodium hydride Powerball! This is 19,213
psi...not only a difficult to achieve pressure for hydrogen, but in
fact impossible
(even liquid hydrogen is far less dense).
A gallon container of Powerballs would be roughly 30% empty space and 70%
NaH by volume. Even with the 30% loss, a gallon of Powerballs stores a
respectable 12.7 KWH. Consider that a top of the line lead acid
battery weighing
far more than a gallon of Powerballs stores less than 1KWH.
Is a Powerball/Water Tank safe?
A Powerball/Water tank does not have to be kept to near absolute
zero. Large
compressors are not needed for refueling. In fact, to refuel a
Powerball/Water
tank all that needs to be done is, 1) remove waste hydroxide and
skins, 2)pour in
water, 3)dump in Powerballs, and the system is refueled ready for
use. If a
Powerball/Water tank is cut, ripped, or severely damaged, all that
happens is
water and spheres spill out. You get the crack fixed or buy a new
tank, refill with
spheres and water and all is well again. (A far different scenario
than that of a
compressed hydrogen tank) There is very little pure hydrogen in a
Powerball/Water tank. Hydrogen is produced from the water
incrementally, and
on demand. You never have to worry about a large hydrogen explosion
because
no more than about one-tenth of an ounce of pure hydrogen is ever
produced in
advance at any one time. The hydrogen from a Powerball/Water tank is
consumed
directly after it is produced by either a fuel cell or a combustion
engine (see Moller
International in Davis or Bill Kaiser at AMD in Highland, California
for hydrogen
combustion information).
A Powerball/Water tank can hold a few hundred or a few million spheres,
depending on the size of the tank. If the skin of one individual
Powerball is
removed, and the sodium hydride inside the skin reacts with the water
around it,
no problems are created for the adjacent spheres. They remain intact
and content.
The hydrogen produced by the one reacting sphere bubbles to the top
and is used
normally. In an extreme case where, for some unknown reason, the
coatings of
many spheres are somehow removed and enough hydrogen is produced to
increase the pressure beyond what the tank is rated for (around 200
psi) then
some hydrogen would be released through a pressure relief valve at
the top of the
tank.
How Does It Work?
A Powerball/Water tank is filled with water and Powerballs. A space
at the top of
the tank (above the water) stores a small quantity of gaseous
hydrogen at low
pressure. A mechanism inside the tank senses the internal hydrogen
pressure.
Assuming that there are no leaks, and assuming that the hydrogen is
not being
used, then the hydrogen pressure remains the same and the mechanism does
nothing. A Powerball/Water tank filled with spheres and water can
remain in this
condition for as long as required. Various coatings could be used on the
Powerballs to give the system a shelf life of decades!
During operation, as hydrogen is used from the tank, the mechanism
senses the
pressure drop. Once the pressure drops below a set level, the
mechanism takes a
single Powerball from the group of Powerballs and removes the skin,
allowing it to
react with the water in the tank. Thus, the hydrogen bubbles to the
surface of the
water and the hydrogen pressure inside the tank increases to former
levels.
Consider a Powerball of 1.2 inches in diameter: (currently the only
size Powerball
manufactured in the known universe). A Powerball of this size will
produce 17.5
liter (1068 in3) of hydrogen. Assuming that the volume of stored
hydrogen in the
tank is 141 cubic inches, then the produced hydrogen increases this
pressure by
111 psi.
Experiments with actual Powerball/Water tanks at Powerball Industries
have
shown that these pressures are achieved (within a few percent) each
time a
Powerball is reacted. As hydrogen is used from the Powerball/Water
tank, the
mechanism continues to remove balls from the group and react them one
at a time
to produce additional hydrogen. The process can continue until the
last Powerball
in the tank is reacted.
The leftover polyethylene skins (they look a bit like orange
peelings) are collected
in the Powerball/Water tank during operation. When all the Powerballs
have been
used up, the NaOH waste material must be properly removed along with the
skins. After a Powerball/water tank is emptied, it can immediately be
refilled with
water and new Powerballs. The tank is ready once again to supply
clean hydrogen
for use in a piston engine, rotary engine, power plant, or to a fuel
cell equipped
car.
So Why Isn't Sodium Hydride Used
To Produce Hydrogen Now?
The sodium-water reaction was discovered before the term gasoline
combustion
engine even existed. It is one of the most well known reactions in
science.
However, a large container of liquid sodium would be extremely unsafe and
unstable as a method for hydrogen production in a portable
application such as a
vehicle. As Bevan Ott (Dept of Chemistry, BYU) once stated to me in 1989
during the formative stages of this research... "I have worked with
sodium metal
before, and I will NEVER ride in a vehicle with a tank full of liquid
sodium!" And
for a very good reason: The problem with the sodium-water reaction is
that the
possibility exists for unsafe conditions to occur. If unsafe
conditions occur, the
entire car could be doomed...along with poor old Bevan Ott. It could
react almost
all at once with water to produce lots of fire, heat, smoke and an
explosion.
The sodium/sulfur vehicles developed by Ford Motor Company have had some
problems along this very line including an unfortunate sodium fire in
a sodium/sulfur
battery powered van parked in the garage of the formerly nice home of
one of the
battery developers.
Lockheed Corporation invested millions in the sodium-water and
lithium-water
battery more than 20 years ago (1974-1978) only to abandon the
project after
blowing the roof off their main battery testing facility. The Davis
County fire
department was instructed to stand by...squirting high pressure water
on burning
molten lithium metal did not seem appropriate or constructive.
Thus, it has been for these examples and many others that sodium and
all other
alkali metals have been labeled by many in the scientific community
as useless as
an energy storage medium for nearly a century. After the tiger bites
you enough
times you lose interest in trying to tame it!
Powerballs Could Change
Everything!
A chain reaction is simply not possible with Powerballs in water. A
Power Ball
can react without disturbing or causing its neighboring balls to
react. Hence,
sodium hydride cut up into small balls and coated with a waterproof
skin is now
almost an entirely new element. The rules change. For instance, all
alkali metals
are currently shipped with the label--DANGEROUS WHEN WET or KEEP
AWAY FROM WATER.
These warnings could be ignored entirely with Powerballs. In fact,
for many
reasons, Powerballs would be safer if stored directly in water. For
instance, a
Powerball/Water tank in a fire would be safer in many ways than a
gasoline tank.
We all know what happens to a gasoline tank in a fire. Consider that a
Powerball/Water tank would heat up to the boiling point of water and
then no
further. Most conceivable Powerball coating could easily withstand the
temperature of boiling water. The 8 or so gallons of water in the
tank would heat
to the boiling point and then stay at that temperature until the
water had
evaporated from the tank. Only then (and considering that even a 1000
degree F
fire would still take some time to boil off 8 gallons of water) could
the Powerballs
catch fire and burn. And even in this extreme case, the sodium oxide
fumes
produced from the burning sodium hydride would be no more dangerous
than the
aluminum oxide fumes caused by burning aluminum wheel rims.
A more likely scenario is that the fire is extinguished within 10
minutes or so. An
important consideration is that the fire could be extinguished by
conventional
means including water and carbon dioxide. Consider that neither water nor
polyethylene reacts with conventional extinguishing propellant. Another
consideration is that if all vehicles were powered by Powerballs, it
would be fairly
tricky to start a fire in the first place, even during a major
collision. A fuel cell
operating at nearly room temperature is hardly capable of starting a
fire. There are
no spark plugs. No gasoline tanks can break open. No hot exhaust
ports. About
the only thing left even capable of starting a fire would be the
cigarette lighter.
Incidentally, if the cigarette companies all divest into the
manufacture of
Powerballs and quit hawking their foul sticks to innocent children,
then we would
have next to no chance for vehicle fires. No offense Philip
Morris--p.s. what
about that divesting suggestion anyway?
What Else Could Powerballs Be
Made From?
Powerballs could be made from many different alkali metals and
alkaline earth
metals and their hydrides. Don't confuse an alkali or alkaline earth
hydride with a
rare earth hydride. The method of hydrogen retrieval is vastly different.
Rare-earths are heated and the hydrogen is released. Alkali or
alkaline earth metal
hydrides are simply reacted with water to release hydrogen.
Here is a quick list of several alkali metals, alkaline earth metals,
some of
their hydrides and mixed metal hydrides which could be used to generate
hydrogen upon reaction with water:
Alkali Metals
Alkaline Earth Metal
Sodium
Calcium
Lithium
Potassium
Alkali Hydrides
Alkaline Earth Hydride
Sodium Hydride
Calcium Hydride
Lithium Hydride
Mixed Metal Hydrides
Lithium Aluminum Hydride
Sodium Aluminum Hydride
And a quick list of potential coating materials (skin):
Polyethylene (HD, LD, or UHMW)
Polypropylene
Kraton
SBR
Noryl
PEEK
How Are Powerballs Made?
The manufacturing of Powerballs would depend on the type of reactant
material
and the type of skin desired. For instance, lithium aluminum hydride
can store
more than twice as much hydrogen than sodium for the same volume.
PEEK can
withstand much higher temperatures than polyethylene. The process of
encapsulation of reactant in skin will change from one material to
another.
A number of pelletizing processes are available. Sodium, for
instance, with a
melting point of approximately 100 C can be easily melted and allowed
to drip
from the top of a column of inert gas. As the sodium falls it
automatically forms
into balls which could then be coated with polyethylene, for
instance. Sodium
hydride, on the other hand, is a white powder and has NO melting
point at any
temperature at atmospheric pressure. ( It decomposes into hydrogen
and liquid
sodium at 425 C) Sodium hydride could be formed into balls by various
stamping
methods. The balls could then be powder coated. An injection molding
process
could also be developed to produce the sphere and coat it all in one
clean step.
Hydroxide Handling Issues
The sodium hydroxide left over in a Powerball/Water tank is the waste
product of
the sodium-water reaction. However, most professionals in the
hydroxide industry
would chuckle at the term waste when used to describe sodium
hydroxide. NaOH
is the 9th most commonly produced chemical in the U.S. Wyandotte (a
supplier of
NaOH boasts in a pamphlet that just one of their NaOH cells uses more
electricity
in one day than a city of 40,000 families would use in a month. And
in fact, the
manufacture of sodium hydroxide consumes 1 out of every 100 Mega watts
produced in the U.S. by any method. Sodium hydroxide is used in the
manufacture of paper, paint, textiles, cloth, plastic, petroleum, and
cleaning
solutions. Interestingly, a huge percentage of all hydrogen produced
globally is
simply a byproduct of the sodium hydroxide industry. (See Praxair,
Air products
etc.) Modern day society would come to a screeching halt without sodium
hydroxide. It is used somewhere along the line in the manufacture of
virtually every
conceivable product. Interestingly, it could be produced as a waste
product by
millions of Powerball vehicles and recycled for use in industry or
used to produce
more Powerballs.
Powerball Refueling Station
A Powerball fuel station of the future would need three separate
tanks. One tank
would be filled with Powerballs and water. The second with sodium
hydroxide
and the third would be used to store the Powerball coating material.
Consider an individual named Agi who drives a Powerball-hydrogen car
of the
future. Agi stops at the local Powerball equipped 7-11 for a snack
and swipes her
card for a quick refill of Powerballs. Consider that Agi's fuel tank
has a few
remaining Powerball and the balance is sodium hydroxide (let's say 6
gallons). Agi
inserts a nozzle into the refuel cap of her car, presses the flashing
start button and
goes inside to get some potato chips. Meanwhile, several important
things happen:
First, no hydrocarbon fumes are coming from Agi's open fuel tank
(there are
none). Second, the fuel station pumps the 6 gallons of NaOH into an
underground
hydroxide tank on site. It simultaneously pumps the leftover
polyethylene coating
material from Agi's tank into the proper storage tank. It then pumps
fresh water
and new coated Powerballs into Agi's tank and prints out a receipt.
Agi grumbles
about the high cost of potato chips and drives away. She is happy
once again as
she drives into her world where the air is crisp and clean and easy
to breathe.
The fuel station is serviced periodically by trucks which pick up
sodium hydroxide
and polyethylene. These trucks deliver the caustic and polyethylene
to central
plants that are already in existence. The hydroxide plants clean up
and ship the
hydroxide to customers as usual. The polyethylene plants recycle the
polyethylene
and return it to industry ( perhaps to be re-used in the
manufacturing of more
Powerballs).
A central plant could also be designed to accept both the hydroxide and
polyethylene. A reliable supply of electricity would be the only
major raw material
needed for the plant to recycle the NaOH into NaH (sodium hydride)
and oxygen.
The oxygen could be sold or (heaven forbid) returned to the
atmosphere for
people to breathe. The sodium hydride could be coated with
polyethylene and
returned to the fuel station, once again ready for Agi to use.
Still another scenario exists in which Agi installs a
hydroxide-to-Power Ball
converter in her garage. Solar panels on Agi's house could provide
energy to
remove the oxygen from the NaOH. The system could produce coated sodium
hydride Powerballs for Agi's car without using anything other than
the sun! It
would be a completely recyclable system and Agi would never need to buy
Powerballs again!
Which Is Cheaper . . . Powerballs or
Gasoline?
If a larger corporation emerges which is capable of handling the
various issues
surrounding the production, distribution and sale of Powerballs as a
fuel, the sales
growth could be staggering. As the volumes of production increase and the
demand grows for Powerball fuel, the manufacturing systems could
become very
efficient and streamlined.
Sodium is the least expensive of all metals and is the 4th most abundant
element on the crust of our planet.
The price for sodium produced on a large scale after the initial
equipment has been
paid for will approximately be equal to the energy costs. The
theoretical energy
required to produce 1 pound of sodium from NaCl is less than 3 KWH. 11.5
pounds of sodium produce 1 pound of hydrogen in the reaction (NaH + H20 =
NaOH + H2). 1 pound of hydrogen in a fuel cell @ 70% efficiency = 1
gallon of
gasoline in an ICE @ 30% efficiency. Thus, the equivalent cost will
be less than
34.5 KWH which at $.04 per KWH is only $1.38 per equivalent energy to a
gallon of gasoline.
The above analysis does not take into consideration any revenue from
the sale of
the byproduct chlorine. It also does not take into account that the
waste hydroxide
can be sold to industry. 11.5 pounds of Na will produce 20 pounds of
NaOH,
which at the current cost of $.22 per pound means that you will
produce $4.40
worth of hydroxide for each $1.38 of fuel. This means that for every
equivalent
gallon of gasoline used in the vehicle (11.5 pounds of Na), a net
profit of more
than $3.00 is realized, making the cost of fuel shockingly
inexpensive indeed!
Still another impressive advantage of Powerball fuel over gasoline is
that it is
recyclable. With a hydroxide-to-Powerball converter, the fuel can be
made from
the waste anywhere and anytime with an adequate supply of electrical
energy. The
option of reproducing fuel using only renewable energy sources such
as solar,
wind, or micro-hydro, or OTEC is attractive for reasons of
independence, cleaner
air, and an overall superior product.
Powerball Cars Are Better Than
Gasoline Cars!
A fuel-cell car running with a smooth, efficient electric motor is
inherently better
than a gasoline combustion car. For starters, it is quieter.
Acceleration rates for
state of the art electric motors are better than their gasoline
counterparts. There
are far fewer moving parts--no pistons, crankshafts, seals, valves,
carburetors or
timing chains to wear out--no messy gasoline or oil to worry about.
Fuel pumps,
fuel filters, and exhaust pipes could become a thing of the past. No
oil slicks on all
the driveways and parking lots around town. And most importantly: zero
emissions from hydrocarbon fuels.
A fuel-cell electric car powered by hydrogen made from Powerballs and
water
could very well be the answer to clean up the air and reduce our
dependence of
foreign oil. In addition, a Powerball-fuel cell car could provide
options that are not
possible with gasoline engines. Consider that momentum regeneration
is usable in
a fuel cell vehicle. Solar cells could also be used to supplement the
hydrogen
supply on board the car. Powerballs could be produced using hundreds of
conceivable energy sources. For instance, consider an exercise bike
that is
connected to a small generator. While exercising it could be possible
to produce
enough Powerballs to get you to the neighborhood shopping center!
Who Invented Powerballs?
Powerball Industries (a non-profit-to-date company) originated the
concept of
Powerballs and has produced hundreds of Powerballs using various
reactants and
coatings. Powerball Industries holds the patent (pending) for the use
of the balls
and for the concept of the hydrogen generator and skin removal
mechanism inside
the Powerball/Water tank. And , of course, investment opportunities
are available.
They might actually pay off in the long run, too.
DISCLAIMER!
Although every effort was made to represent the facts accurately,
this concept
touches upon many areas of study and the technical literature in
these areas is vast
and growing rapidly. Some of the comments have been made with a bit of
tongue-in-cheek humor, and except for the oil companies, I hope no
one takes
offense. Please write with any suggestions or comments that might
help this
technology flourish and grow to become a new source of energy for the
world. If
enough skilled chemists, physicists, politicians, ecologists, and
businessmen come
forward with a desire to make a difference...it can happen.
Powerball Industries
2095 West 2200 South
West Valley City, UT 84119
Phone: (801) 974-9120
Fax: (801) 972-5032
e-mail: powerball@theonlynet.com
The previous is a concept paper only. The rough analysis describes an
alternative to
the petroleum energy path for automobiles. Powerball Industries is
not pursuing this
path from a business standpoint in any way. The concept is provided
from a
theoretical viewpoint only to stimulate thought on Powerball
technology and its
potential in real-world applications.
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